7. Communication

1. General considerations
2. Visual signaling
   1. Visual signaling based on body part movements
      1. Head
      2. Tail
      3. Legs
      4. Body postures
   2. Social rank
   3. Threat behavior: The sender and receiver
   4. Submission
      1. Active
      2. Passive
3. Body contact
   1. Snapping and biting
   2. Licking of fur, face, mouth, and wounds
   3. During walking, running, and sleeping
4. Scent
   1. Scent-marking
      1. Functions
      2. Sources of scent
         1. Urine
         2. Feces
         3. Glands
      3. Types of scent-marking
         1. Urination
         2. Defecation
         3. Scratching
      4. Locations of scent marks
      5. Frequency of scent marks
      6. Chemistry of scent marks
   2. Sniffing
   3. Scent-rolling
5. Vocalization
   1. Whimper or whine
   2. Growl
   3. Bark
   4. Squeak
   5. Howl
      1. Functions
      2. Solo and chorus howls
      3. Frequency of howling
      4. Howl Signatures
      5. Beau geste howling?
      6. Simulated howling
      7. Howling of lone wolves

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Harrington, F.H. 1982. An analysis of howling response parameters useful for wolf pack censusing. Journal of Wildlife Management 46:686-693.

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Mech, L.D. 1999. Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77(8):1196-1203.

Mech, L.D. 2000. Leadership in wolf, Canis lupus, packs. Canadian Field-Naturalist 114(2):259-263.

Mech, L.D. 2001. "Standing over" and "hugging" in wild wolves, Canis lupus. Canadian Field- Naturalist 115(1):179-181.

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